The effects of two commercial endoproteases (Protex 6L and Protex 7L, Genencor Division of Danisco, Rochester, NY, USA) on the oil and protein extraction yields from extruded soybean flakes during enzyme-assisted aqueous extraction processing (EAEP) were evaluated. Oil and protein were distributed in three fractions generated by the EAEP: cream + free oil, skim and insolubles. Protex 6L was more effective for extracting free oil, protein and total solids than Protex 7L. Oil and protein extraction yields of 96 and 85%, respectively, were obtained using 0.5% Protex 6L. Enzymatic and pH treatments were evaluated to de-emulsify the oil-rich cream. Cream de-emulsification generated three fractions: free oil, an intermediate residual cream layer and an oil-lean second skim. Total cream de-emulsification was obtained when using 2.5% Protex 6L and pH 4.5. The extrusion treatment was particularly important for reducing trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA) in the protein-rich skim fraction. TIA reductions of 69 and 45% were obtained for EAEP skim (the predominant protein fraction) from extruded flakes and ground flakes, respectively. Protex 6L gave higher degrees of protein hydrolysis (most of the polypeptides being between 1,000 and 10,000 Da) than Protex 7L. Raffinose was not detected in the skim, while stachyose was eliminated by a-galactosidase treatment.

The effects of scaling-up enzyme-assisted aqueous extraction process (EAEP) using 2 kg of flaked and extruded soybeans as well as the effects of different extrusion and extraction conditions were evaluated. Standard single-stage EAEP at 1:10 solids-to-liquid ratio (SLR) was used to evaluate the effects of different extruder screw speeds and whether or not collets were extruded directly into water. Increasing extruder screw speed from 40 to 90 rpm improved oil extraction yield from 85 to 95%. Oil, protein, and solids extraction yields of 97, 86, and 78% were obtained when extruding directly into water and 95, 84, and 77% when not extruding into water. When not extruding into water, standard single-stage EAEP (1:10 SLR) yielded 95, 84, and 77% of total oil, protein, and solids extraction, respectively, and two-stage countercurrent EAEP (1:6 SLR) yielded 99, 94, and 83% total oil, protein, and solids extraction, respectively. These yields were similar to those previously obtained in the laboratory (0.08 kg soybeans), but higher oil contents were observed in the skim fractions produced at pilot-plant scale for both processes. Modifying processing parameters improved the oil distribution among the fractions, increasing oil yield in the cream fraction (from 76 to 86%) and reducing oil yield in the skim fraction (from 23 to 12%). Steady-state oil extraction was achieved after two 2-stage extractions. Twostage countercurrent EAEP is particularly attractive due to reduced water usage compared to conventional single-stage extraction.

Enzyme-assisted aqueous extraction processing (EAEP) is an increasingly viable alternative to hexane extraction of soybean oil. Although considered an environmentally friendly technology where edible oil and protein can be simultaneously recovered, this process employs much water and produces a significant amount of protein-rich aqueous effluent (skim). In standard EAEP, highest oil, protein and solids yields are achieved with a single extraction stage using 1:10 solids-to-liquid ratio (extruded flakes/ water), 0.5% protease (wt/g extruded flakes), pH 9.0, and 50°C for 1 h. To reduce the amount of water used, two-stage countercurrent EAEP was evaluated for extracting oil, protein and solids from soybeans using a solids-to-liquid ratio of 1:5-1:6 (extruded flakes/water). Two-stage countercurrent EAEP achieved higher oil, protein and solids extraction yields than using standard EAEP with only one-half the usual amount of water. Oil, protein and solids yields up to 98 and 96%, 92 and 87%, and 80 and 77% were obtained when using two-stage countercurrent EAEP (1:5-1:6) and standard single-stage EAEP (1:10), respectively. Recycling the second skim obtained in two-stage countercurrent EAEP enabled reuse of the enzyme, with or without inactivation, in the first extraction stage producing protein with different degrees of hydrolysis and the same extraction efficiency. Slightly higher oil, protein and solids extraction yields were obtained using unheated skim compared to heated skim. These advances make the two-stage countercurrent EAEP attractive as the front-end of a soybean biorefinery.

Recebido em 19/5/06; aceito em 9/11/06; publicado na web em 28/5/07 CHEMICAL INTERESTERIFICATION: ALTERNATIVE TO PRODUCTION OF ZERO TRANS FATS. The function of lipids in human nutrition has been intensively debated in the last decade.This context reinforces the concern about controlling the trans fat ingestion, due to its negative implications on health. Interesterification provides an important alternative to modify the consistency of oils and fats without causing formation of trans isomers. This article reports research done towards production of zero trans fats by chemical interesterification, for different industrial purposes. Aspects related to the effect of trans fats on diet, their impact on health and modifications in Brazilian legislation are also covered.Keywords: trans fatty acids; interesterification; nutrition. LIPÍDIOS E ÁCIDOS GRAXOS TRANS (AGT)Óleos e gorduras comestíveis são nutrientes essenciais da dieta humana, apresentando papel vital mediante o fornecimento de áci-dos graxos essenciais e energia. Em adição às qualidades nutricionais, os óleos e gorduras provêem consistência e características de fusão específicas aos produtos que os contêm, atuam como meio de transferência de calor durante o processo de fritura e como carreadores de vitaminas lipossolúveis e aroma 1 . Além disso, os lipídios afetam a estrutura, estabilidade, sabor, aroma, qualidade de estocagem, características sensoriais e visuais dos alimentos 2 . Quimicamente, óleos e gorduras são compostos predominantemente por triacilgliceróis. Ácidos graxos saturados são menos reativos e apresentam ponto de fusão superior em relação ao ácido graxo correspondente de mesmo tamanho de cadeia com uma ou mais duplas ligações. Ácidos graxos insaturados podem existir nas configurações cis e trans, com diferentes propriedades físico -químicas. Por suas características estruturais, os ácidos graxos na forma trans (AGT) têm ponto de fusão mais elevado quando comparado com seu isômero cis correspondente, mas inferior ao ponto de fusão do ácido graxo saturado com mesmo número de átomos de carbono. Assim, os isômeros trans podem ser considerados como intermediários entre um ácido graxo original insaturado e um áci-do graxo completamente saturado 2 . A Figura 1 ilustra a estrutura espacial e ponto de fusão dos ácidos oléico, elaídico e esteárico. Os AGT de maior ocorrência são os monoinsaturados, mas vários isômeros diinsaturados ou mesmo triinsaturados podem ser formados a partir dos ácidos linoléico e linolênico 3 . FORMAÇÃO DOS AGTOs AGT estão presentes naturalmente em gorduras originadas de animais ruminantes, como resultado do processo de biohidrogenação na flora microbiana do rúmen. O teor de AGT na carne e leite varia de 1,5 a 6,5%. O isômero trans predominante corresponde ao C18:1 11t, conhecido como ácido trans vacênico ou ácido rumênico 4 . Estima-se que 2 a 8% dos isômeros trans da dieta sejam provenientes desta fonte e veiculados principalmente pelos laticínios 5 . Isômeros trans também podem ser formados, embora em pequenas quantidades (...

No abstract