[eng] Relative Cost of Capital to Labour and Substitution : Does the Link Still Exist ? Jérôme Henry, Véronique Leroux, Pierre-Alain Muet In France, the slowdown in economic growth which occurred after each oil shock has been followed by a simultaneous reduction of the productivity of both labour and capital. This is contrary to the substitu- tion that should have occurred since the early 1980s, on the basis of the sustained increase in real interest rates and the stagnation of wages. It helps to explain the difficulties faced when trying to identify econometrically a significant impact of capital cost investment in recent past years. The article shows however that the evolution of the average factor productivity becomes consistent with the movement of relative factor costs once two effects are taken into account : on the one hand the impact of delays in the adjustment of capital to slower growth ; and on the other hand the less favourable effects of inter-industry factor mobility. We first analyze different hypotheses related to the magnitude of the effects of substitution, and then present a quantitative assessment of the different influences which are likely to affect the evolution of both labour and capital productivity. As this study does not find any marked slow-down of technical progress, it would seem that the potential growth of the French economy may remain strong. [fre] Le ralentissement de la croissance économique intervenu après chacun des chocs pétroliers s'est accompagné en France d'une réduction simultanée des productivités du capital et du travail. Cette évolution, contradictoire avec les effets de substitution qu'auraient dû entraîner la forte montée des taux d'intérêts réels et la stagnation du salaire réel depuis le début des années quatre-vingt, explique notamment les difficultés à metttre en évidence un impact significatif du coût du capital sur l'investissement dans les estimations économétriques incorporant les années récentes. L'article montre que l'évolution des productivités moyennes des facteurs de production redevient compatible avec celle de leur coût relatif dès lors qu'on prend en compte deux effets : d'une part l'impact des délais d'ajustement du capital au ralentissement de la croissance et d'autre part la diminution des effets favorables de la mobilité intersectorielle des facteurs. Après avoir examiné différentes hypothèses relatives à l'importance des effets de substitution, on propose un bilan quantitatif des différents éléments susceptibles d'influencer l'évolution des productivités du travail et du capital. L'étude ne mettant pas en évidence de ralentissement marqué du progrès technique, la croissance potentielle de l'économie française devrait rester élevée.
[fre] MZE, un modèle macroéconométrique pour la zone euro . . À partir des comptes trimestriels pour la zone euro construits par Eurostat, on élabore un modèle macroéconométrique dans le but d’enrichir les outils de prévision et d’analyse de l’économie de la zone. Quelques données manquantes cruciales doivent être reconstruites en s’appuyant sur des données incomplètes fournies par Eurostat (capital, revenu disponible des ménages, commerce intra-zone). La structure du modèle est néoclassique à long terme, néokeynésienne à court terme. Cette version du modèle prend comme référence pour l’offre de biens une fonction de production Cobb-Douglas. L’offre de travail est modélisée soit par une courbe de Phillips soit par une fonction WS et par un taux d’activité dépendant du taux de chômage. Le court terme implique des coûts d’ajustement modélisés de manière ad hoc par des modèles à correction d’erreur. Les effets variantiels à court terme et à long terme sont assez consensuels. Pour le long terme, le potentiel de l’économie apparaît dépendre de la population en âge de travailler, de la productivité globale des facteurs, du coût réel du capital, et éventuellement des termes de l’échange et de la fiscalité sur les salaires. D’ores et déjà, le modèle incorpore la possibilité d’utilisation en anticipations rationnelles pour l’étude des évolutions de changes et de taux à long terme. Un exercice de choix de la fonction de réaction monétaire est mené à titre illustratif des questions pouvant être abordées par le modèle. [eng] MZE, a Macroeconometric Model for the Euro Zone . . We build a macroeconometric model from Eurostat’s quarterly euro zone accounts with the aim of enhancing the zone’s economic forecasting and analytic tools. Some crucial missing data have to be reconstructed from incomplete data provided by Eurostat (capital, households’ disposable income and trade within the zone). The model’s structure is neoclassical in the long run and neo-Keynesian in the short run. This version of the model takes a Cobb-Douglas production function as its reference for the goods supply. The labour supply is modelled either by a Phillips curve or by a WS function and a labour force participation rate depending on the unemployment rate. The short run entails adjustment costs modelled ad hoc by error correction models. The short-run and long-run variantial effects are fairly similar. The economy’s long-run prospects seem to depend on the working-age population, total factor productivity, the real cost of capital, and possibly terms of trade and payroll taxation. The model can now be used for rational expectations to study changes in exchange rates and long-term rates. An exercise is conducted to select a monetary reaction function to illustrate the questions that the model can address. [ger] MZE, ein makroökonometrisches Modell für den Euro-Raum . . Anhand der von Eurostat für den Euro-Raum erstellten vierteljährlichen Volkswirtschaftlichen Gesamtrechnung wird ein makroökonometrisches Modell erarbeitet, um die Prognose-und Analyseinst...
[eng] Two Decompositions of National Income in the Major OECD Countries Jérôme Henry, Jacques Le Cacheux Two alternative decompositions of national income are commonly undertaken : the division of value added amongst major actors of the production process, i.e. the distribution of gross income ; and the decomposition of demand, which shows expenditure by category of expenditure (consumption, investment, etc.). These two approaches are confronted in this comparative study of six large OECD countries — Germany, France, Italy, Japan, the United States — over the period 1970-1987. During these years, factor shares have changed considerably : a marked increase in the wage share is observable everywhere until the beginning of the 1980s, followed by a decrease of about the same magnitude. Recently, wage shares have been on the rise again everywhere, including in France according to the new national accounts. The size and persistence of the most recent increase are however uncertain. Changes in the way value added is shared reflect variations in labor productivity and in the product wage, the time profiles of which have been extremely diverse across the various countries. Factor shares are also affected by relative price changes. And, due to exchange rate fluctuations and oil price shocks, the various relative prices have moved considerably during the period covered by this study. This has resulted in — sometimes large — divergences between the product wage and the real wage in terms of consumption goods. The structure of national spending in the various countries has also been profoundly altered during this period ; however, these changes appear to be only loosely related to those of income shares. Thus, for instance, the changes in investment rates in major OECD countries do not seem to be closely correlated with the variations in gross profit shares in value added. Our conclusions raise questions about the combined effects of the policies that have been pursued in the recent years. In particular, they bear upon the choice of the right mix of incomes policy and exchange- rate policy. [fre] Deux décompositions alternatives du revenu national sont généralement proposées : le partage de la valeur ajoutée entre les principaux acteurs du processus de production, qui permet l'étude de la répartition des revenus primaires ; la décomposition de la demande, qui fait apparaître l'affectation de ces revenus aux diverses catégories de dépenses (consommation, investissement, etc.). Ces deux optiques sont ici confrontées dans une étude comparative incluant Etats-Unis, France, Italie, Japon, RFA et Royaume-Uni — et couvrant la période 1970-1987. Au cours de ces années le partage de la valeur ajoutée a subi des déformations considérables : une hausse sensible de la part des salaires jusqu'au début de la présente décennie, une baisse, généralement du même ordre de grandeur, depuis lors. Récemment une nouvelle inversion semble être intervenue à l'étranger et, si l'on en juge d'après les nouvelles données de comptabilité nationale, en Fr...
The article presents the first medium-term projection of the world economy made using MIMOSA, a model built jointly by the CEPII and the OFCE. After the unexpectedly good performance of the world economy in 1988, a period of slow down could take place in 1989/1990, resulting in part from strong anti-inflationary policies. Growth in OECD countries would settle at around 3 % a year until 1 993. There would nevertheless be significant differences : growth would be moderate in the United States (2 % a year over the 1988-1993 period), while still vigorous in Japan (4,5 %) ; growth in the EEC would be one point higher than it was between 1979 and 1987, but still disappointing (2,7 %). After a period of lower growth rates than its Européen partners (1983-1987), France would reach the 2,6 % EEC average. The situation would be more propitious for developing countries in Latin America and Africa, which would gradually begin growing again, while Asia as a whole would see particularly strong growth. Inflation would remain under control : it would be weak in Japan, West Germany and France (respectively 1,4, 1,1 and 2,5 % in 1993). It would be significatly higher in the United States (5,4 %). Oil prices would stabilise in real terms before increasing slowly at the beginning of 1 990. In spite of the dollar's nominal depreciation, (1 ,5 mark and 95 yen) and of the slow down of American growth, imbalances would remain : the United States current account deficit would reach 3,2 % of GNP by the end of the period, while Japaneese and German surpluses would persist. Finally, disparities in Europe would gradually worsen. Whereas the unemployment rate would remain at a high level in France and Italy (1 1 %), it would decrease steadily in Germany, to reach 5,3 % in 1993, while remaining below its 1987 level in the United Kingdom. Meanwhile, large gaps would remain as far as public accounts are concerned, French discipline contrasting with a persistant deficit in Italy, and the external debt of the United Kingdom would grow. Even though a low inflation rate could be maintained (except for Italy), the objective of macroeconomic convergence within the EEC would still be far from being achieved in 1993.
[eng] Since 1980 the direct investments of the United States in western developed countries have fluctuated considerably. The large disinvestment of the early eighties in Europe and Canada has been recently followed by substantial reinvestments. This paper introduces a theoretical explanation of the decision to invest abroad, considered as a two-step process : the allocation of productive capital and the financing of investment. Depending on how foreign subsidiaries are bound to their parent, we get two possible modelling formulations. Whatever modelling method is chosen, the econometric tests performed for every country (Canada, United-Kingdom, West-Germany, the Netherlands, France and Italy) over the period 1962-1986 stress the financial return of setting up production abroad. The other variables considered (factor costs and local demands) play a minor part in the accumulation of capital abroad. In addition, we test the hypothesis of a common evolution of the share of exports in production and the accumulation of direct investment abroad. On the basis of the figures for Canada, the Netherlands, France and Italy, we observe that such a relation does exist between exports of US goods and US capital. [fre] Depuis 1980 les investissements directs des Etats-Unis dans les pays occidentaux ont connu des fluctuations spectaculaires. En Europe et au Canada un réinvestissement substantiel a récemment succédé au désengagement massif du début des années quatre-vingt. Nous proposons un cadre d'explication qui décompose la décision d'investissement direct à l'étranger en deux étapes : l'allocation du capital productif et le financement de l'investissement. Selon le degré d'autonomie des filiales vis-à-vis de leur maison-mère nous obtenons deux formulations possibles du modèle. Quelle que soit la formulation retenue, les tests économétriques effectués sur la période 1962-1986 mettent en avant dans tous les pays (Canada, Royaume-Uni, RFA, Pays-Bas, France et Italie) le poids du rendement des implantations. Les autres variables prises en compte (coûts des facteurs et demandes locales) jouent un rôle moindre dans l'accumulation du capital délocalisé. De plus nous testons l'hypothèse d'un effet d'entraînement entre la part des exportations dans la production et le rythme d'accumulation des investissements directs à l'étranger. Vers le Canada, les Pays-Bas, la France et l'Italie on constate bien l'existence d'une telle relation entre les exportations de biens et de capitaux américains.
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