Purpose – The purpose of this article is to discuss the assessment and inclusion of stakeholders' perception, and citizen participation instances to implementing management options to deal with climate threats within the existing institutional framework in Uruguay. Design/methodology/approach – The approach being followed has different directional approaches and integrates them within a single assessment. First, a prescriptive climate change top-down path. Second, stakeholders' perception is assessed within a bottom-up risk-management model. Third, institutional agreements, arrangements, and consensus are reached. Considering the need for agreed and effective options, the approach is customized and turned flexible enough to accept inputs from scientists, managers, and stakeholders. Findings – The co-production of knowledge and the achievement of agreed and feasible options is achieved by means of a consultation process which results in adaptive co-management agreements and collective decisions. This process is seen as both an empowerment of local actors and a multi-stakeholder learning-by-doing experiment. This allows for both an increase in coping capacity to climate threats and facilitates long standing conflict resolution. Originality/value – Much literature discusses the importance of the role of social power in inclusive processes towards adaptation, and how difficult is ceding a genuine voice to stakeholders. The co-production of knowledge is a way to achieve the rapprochement of scientists with institutional and community actors. Thus, the participatory process gives stakeholders responsibility for identifying their specific needs and priorities and helps to establish community ownership.

Two types of adaptation are identified. Type I Adaptation is the everyday adaptation to weather and climate that has always been a feature of human life. Type II Adaptation is the adaptation mandated under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change. Type I Adaptation is promoted as part of sustainable development. Type II Adaptation relates to anthropogenic climate change and is subject to the rules and practices under the Convention. The two types of adaptation are similar but not identical. Type I Adaptation has traditionally assumed a stationary climate. In Type II Adaptation the climate is changing and the international community has a cost-sharing responsibility under the UNFCCC. There is a need to bring about a single seamless process of adaptation. Type I Adaptation has not been working very successfully. Losses from extreme weather and climaterelated events are rising rapidly. This failure of current adaptation to keep pace with development is called the adaptation deficit. Type II Adaptation could be developed under the Convention to help eradicate the adaptation deficit. This would require the development of a more formal adaptation regime under the Convention similar to the mitigation (Kyoto) regime that already exists. The paper concludes that: 1. There is an unacceptably large and growing adaptation deficit; 2. The deficit can be more effectively addressed by combining the Climate Convention work with the development process and mainstreaming climate risk; and 3. By developing a more coherent and operational adaptation regime we can have more confidence that the efforts we collectively make will be rewarded with success.

Purpose This study aims to show a case study of ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA) measures to increase coastal system’s resilience to extreme weather events and sea-level rise (SLR) implemented at Kiyú (Uruguayan coast of the Rio de la Plata river estuary). Design/methodology/approach A participatory process involving the community and institutional stakeholders was carried out to select and prioritise adaptation measures to reduce the erosion of sandy beaches, dunes and bluffs due to extreme wind storm surge and rainfall, SLR and mismanagement practices. The recovery of coastal ecosystems was implemented through soft measures (green infrastructure) such as revegetation with native species, dune regeneration, sustainable drainage systems and the reduction of use pressures. Findings Main achievements of this case study include capacity building of municipal staff and stakeholders, knowledge exchanges with national-level decision makers and scientists and the incorporation of EbA approaches by subnational-level coastal governments. To consolidate EbA, the local government introduced innovations in the coastal management institutional structure. Originality/value The outcomes of the article include, besides the increase in the resilience of social-ecological systems, the strengthening of socio-institutional behaviour, structure and sustainability. This experience provides insights for developing a strategy for both Integrated Coastal Management and climate adaptation at the national scale.

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