Ethiopia is one of the most vulnerable countries to climate change and often signifies higher probabilities of droughts that have historically affected millions of farmers. The variability in rainfall patterns and drought have disrupted crop production and exacerbated food insecurity in many parts of Ethiopia. This study aimed to investigate seasonal and annual temperature and rainfall trends and their association to the global CO₂ emission. Temperature and rainfall data obtained from the Masha meteorological station and CO₂ from EDGAR 4.3.2 dataset recorded for 36 years. The Linear regression model was used to analyse seasonal temperature and rainfall trends. Pearson’s correlation coefficient employed to measure the relationship between temperature and rainfall and global CO₂ emission. The results showed that there were significant warming trends of seasonal and annual mean temperatures while summer season and annual rainfall significantly declined. The prediction results showed that the summer and annual mean temperatures would be significantly increased while the rainfall decreased for the next 35 years. The cumulative global CO₂ and annual mean temperature and rainfall were correlated significantly at P = 0.0004 and 0.006 for temperature and rainfall, respectively. The results demonstrated clearly that the increasing of temperature and the decreasing of rainfall had a direct relationship with the global CO₂ emissions and suggested that there should be a sound soil and water management, short season seed supply and pipe irrigation practices to reduce the future crop damage in the area.

Ethiopia is highly vulnerable to the impact of climate change due to its low adaptive capacity and a higher dependence on rain-fed agriculture for livelihood. The aim of this paper was to identify the long-term climatic trends and the magnitude of those trends and to analyse drought duration, frequency, and severity in southern and south-eastern Ethiopia based on climatic data (1980-2017). This research is a quantitative research method. The southern and south-eastern of Ethiopia were purposely selected based on a frequent occurrence of drought in the country. Monthly data were obtained from National Meteorological Agency (NMA) of Ethiopia. Mann-Kendall (MK) Test coupled with Sen’s Slope Estimator was used to analyse the trend of climatic data and its magnitude, and Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI) was used to analysis drought characteristics. SPEI of 1-, 3- and 6-month timescales were calculated to understand drought characteristics. The result of the MK test showed that annual rainfall trend had non-significant decrease at all station except at Gode. The trend of annual maximum and minimum temperature is insignificantly increasing. The calculated SPEI revealed drought is more frequent and severe from time to time in the study area. Results showed that the most frequent, severe and prolonged droughts occurred during1999-2017 compared to 1980-1999. Climate change mitigation and proactive drought management approach is highly recommended in order to minimize the risk of drought.

Currently, ecosystem services (the benefits society drive from the ecosystem) are under pressure from climate change. With increasing climate change over time, the influence that it can cause ecosystem service attracted the attention of the world more than ever. In our daily life, directly or indirectly we rely on benefits gained from the ecosystem. This review paper was aimed to address the effects of climate change on ecosystem services with its possible mitigation and adaptation measures by analyzing articles, books, and reports collected from trusted journals and websites. The range and extents of ecosystem service can be affected in quality and quantity both directly and indirectly due to climate change over time. Supporting services of the ecosystem like biomass production, nutrient cycling, soil formation, atmospheric oxygen, production, and the water cycle were affected. Similarly, provisioning services such as food, drinking water, timber, wood fuel, fodder, wood, fibers, plants, and animal species are affected. Regulating services like cross-pollination, seed dispersal, decomposition, water regulation, flood control, carbon sequestration, and climate regulation are affected. Furthermore, cultural services like tourism and recreation, aesthetic values, cultural heritage, spiritual and religious values, educational values, social relations, and ecotourism are going to decline. Generally, understanding the effects of climate changes on ecosystem services became fundamentally important adaptation and mitigation of effect. Hence, conservation, protection, restoration, and appropriate management ecosystem are required for adaptation and mitigation of climate change effect.

<span>The Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) and the Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI) are used to monitor and identify different types of drought, including meteorological, hydrological, and agricultural droughts. This study evaluates the accuracy of estimating soil moisture levels using the two indexes. The analysis correlated the SPI and the SPEI over three years (November 2016–October 2019) using <em>Rstudio</em>, with average monthly soil moisture taken using a Soil Moisture Sensor; 3-, 6- and 12-months SPI and SPEI showed a positive correlation for soil moisture (Sig &lt;0.05), whereas 1-month SPI and SPEI results did not.  A regression test was used to get an equation model for estimating soil moisture content. The correlation for soil moisture between the 1-month SPI and SPEI results was insignificant (p-value &gt;0.05). In contrast, the 3-, 6-, and 12-months indexes were significant (p-value &lt;0.05). Estimating soil moisture content using the SPEI (50–59.09%) had a higher accuracy value than the SPI (36.36%), which indicates the SPEI can more reliably predict soil moisture.</span>