Using co-expression network analysis, we identified 123 transcription factors (TFs) as candidate secondary cell wall regulators in rice. To validate whether these TFs are associated with secondary cell wall formation, six TF genes belonging to the MYB, NAC or homeodomain-containing TF families were overexpressed or downregulated in rice. With the exception of OsMYB58/63-RNAi plants, all transgenic plants showed phenotypes possibly related to secondary cell wall alteration, such as dwarfism, narrow and dark green leaves, and also altered rice cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase 2 (OsCAD2) gene expression and lignin content. These results suggest that many of the 123 candidate secondary cell wall-regulating TFs are likely to function in secondary cell wall formation in rice. Further analyses were performed for the OsMYB55/61 and OsBLH6 TFs, the former being a TF in which the Arabidopsis ortholog is known to participate in lignin biosynthesis (AtMYB61) and the latter being one for which no previous involvement in cell wall formation has been reported even in Arabidopsis (BLH6). OsMYB55/61 and OsBLH6-GFP fusion proteins localized to the nucleus of onion epidermal cells. Moreover, expression of a reporter gene driven by the OsCAD2 promoter was enhanced in rice calli when OsMYB55/61 or OsBLH6 was transiently expressed, demonstrating that they function in secondary cell wall formation. These results show the validity of identifying potential secondary cell wall TFs in rice by the use of rice co-expression network analysis.

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Cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase (CAD) catalyzes the last step of monolignol biosynthesis. The rice genome contains 12 CAD-like genes, and whereas the proteins encoded by OsCAD2 and OsCAD7 are known to function in monolignol biosynthesis, the degree to which these enzymes contribute to this process and the involvement of the enzymes encoded by the remaining ten genes is unclear. This paper investigates the role of OsCAD2 and the nine other OsCAD-like proteins in monolignol biosynthesis. Among the OsCAD genes analyzed, OsCAD2, an enzyme belonging to the bona fide CAD phylogenetic group, was the most abundantly expressed gene in the uppermost internode, and was expressed at levels that were more than seven times greater than those of the second most abundantly expressed gene, OsCAD1. Promoter-GUS analysis of OsCAD2 (pCAD::GUS) in the internode, sheath, and roots revealed that GUS expression was strong in tissues that accumulated high levels of lignin. Furthermore, expression always preceded lignin accumulation, showing the tight correlation between OsCAD2 expression and monolignol biosynthesis. Additionally, expression of pCAD::GUS was well synchronized with that of rice caffeic acid 3-O-methyltransferase (OsCOMT::GUS), suggesting that the two enzymes function cooperatively during monolignol biosynthesis. Co-expression network analysis of eight OsCAD genes further revealed that, among the OsCAD genes, expression of OsCAD2 was most tightly associated with the transcription of lignin biosynthesis-related genes. These results suggest that OsCAD2 is largely responsible for monolignol biosynthesis in rice, which is similar to that indicated for the predominant role of other plant bona fide CAD protein to monolignol biosynthesis.

Fukuyama-type congenital muscular dystrophy (FCMD), one of the most common autosomal-recessive disorders in Japan, is characterized by congenital muscular dystrophy associated with brain malformation due to a defect during neuronal migration. Through positional cloning, we previously identified the gene for FCMD, which encodes the fukutin protein. Here we report that chimeric mice generated using embryonic stem cells targeted for both fukutin alleles develop severe muscular dystrophy, with the selective deficiency of alpha-dystroglycan and its laminin-binding activity. In addition, these mice showed laminar disorganization of the cortical structures in the brain with impaired laminin assembly, focal interhemispheric fusion, and hippocampal and cerebellar dysgenesis. Further, chimeric mice showed anomaly of the lens, loss of laminar structure in the retina, and retinal detachment. These results indicate that fukutin is necessary for the maintenance of muscle integrity, cortical histiogenesis, and normal ocular development and suggest the functional linkage between fukutin and alpha-dystroglycan.

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