Due to the scarcity of giant pandas, there are few descriptions of their morphology and even fewer of their microscopic anatomy and the ultrastructure of their organs. In this study of the complete tongue of an adult male giant panda, we describe the morphology of its lingual surface, the different types of papillae, their characteristics and topographic distribution. It was seen that there are four main types of lingual papillae: filiform, conical, fungiform and vallate. There was no sign of foliate papillae, tuberculum intermolare or sublingua . Papilla distribution was not limited to the dorsum of the tongue, but was also seen on the anterior and ventral surfaces of the tongue. In the anterior third of the midline there is a smooth area with no papillae at all. Morphology of the microgrooves and pores is similar to that observed in other mammals. The papillae share characteristics encountered in Carnivora and herbivorous species of mammals. A narrow bamboo-based diet and specialized manner of eating have together resulted in modification of the tongue of a carnivoran, giving it some characteristics typical of an herbivore.

No abstract

The eight current species of bear (Ursidae) are widely distributed throughout Europe, Asia, and America. They are mainly encountered in the northern hemisphere, except for the spectacled bear and the sun bear, which are also found in the south of the equator. Adaptations of the masticatory apparatus (teeth, tongue, and musculature) to diet are one of the factors that imply the greatest structural changes in the cranium. This diet may be carnivorous, herbivorous, melliferous, or insectivorous, with one type of food predominating according to the time of year. The way in which food is eaten determines the morphology of the lingual surface; generally speaking, all bears put their mouth to the food, which, initially, they lick or they let the food stick to their tongue, as occurs when insects are eaten. As in all mammals, a distinction can be made between mechanical and gustatory papillae and the development and distribution of which depend on the species and their eating habits. In this study of the complete tongues of four species of adult bears, we describe the morphology of the lingual surfaces, the different types of papillae, their characteristics, and topographic distribution. It was seen that there were five main types of lingual papillae: filiform, conical, fungiform, foliate, and vallate. Morphology of the microgrooves and pores was similar to that observed in other mammals. In general, there were no great differences among the four species of bears studied, perhaps due to the similarity in the kind of food they consume in captivity.

Objectives: To identify anatomic differences in the insertion sites of the palmar radiocarpal ligaments in different species of hominoid primates that may be related to their different types of locomotion. Materials and methods:We have used three-dimensional geometric morphometrics (3D GM) to analyze the distal radius ligament insertion sites in 31 Homo sapiens, 25 Pan troglodytes, 31 Gorilla gorilla, and 15 Pongo pygmaeus. We have also dissected the radioscaphocapitate (RSC), long radiolunate (LRL) and short radiolunate (SRL) ligaments in six H. sapiens and five P. troglodytes to obtain quantitative values that were then compared with the results of the 3D GM analysis.Results: H. sapiens had a relatively larger insertion site of the RSC + LRL ligament than the other hominoid primates. P. pygmaeus and P. troglodytes had a relatively large SRL ligament insertion site with a palmar orientation. In G. gorilla, the two ligament insertion sites were relatively smaller and the SRL insertion site had an ulnopalmar orientation.Discussion: The morphological differences observed can be related to the types of locomotion used by the different species and to quantitative data obtained from the dissection of ligaments in H. sapiens and P. troglodytes. 3D GM analysis of ligament insertion sites can help in interpreting the types of locomotion used by extinct hominoid primates through the analysis of preserved fossilized fragments of the distal radius. K E Y W O R D Sdistal radius, hominoid primates, radiocarpal ligaments

The hyoid apparatus is made up of three osteocartilaginous elements that go from the base of the cranium to the hyoid bone; the portions, cranially to caudally, are as follow: stylohyal, ceratohyal, and apohyal. Fusion and ossification of these three components will bring about somewhat long stylohyoid processes, whereas the stylohyal portion is the one that gives rise to the authentic stylohyoid process. The variability of the hyoid apparatus may imply associated compressive pathologies, for which an etiological diagnosis is important. A study was undertaken of 835 craniums of a homogeneous male and female adult population, involving a morphometric analysis of the styloid processes in which quantification was made of the following continual descriptive measurements: thickness, length, sagittal angle, transversal angle, and the distance between vertices. Multivariate data analysis techniques were applied to the data set to describe the relationships between these measurements. The main conclusion from the analysis is the existence of two different groups of styloid processes and the derivation of a prediction score.