At the start of the 1970s, it was intellectually fashionable amongst behavioural geographers to investigate the significance of cognitive maps, and their impacts on people's spatial behaviour. Downs and Stea's book was probably the most influential overview of the field and brought together papers from almost all of the leading exponents of this kind of research. We have excerpted Chapter 1, which explores the dimensions of cognitive mapping, distinguishing between cartographic images and the cognitive constructs that are the focus of their attention. This conceptual piece is informed by a communications model of information transmission and explores processes and defines concepts underpinning research. The authors define the concepts of perception, cognition, attitude and preference, before explaining the differences between what people need to know and what they actually know. Amongst other concepts they focus on differences between locational and attribute information, the role of incomplete, distorted, schematised, and augmented cognitive maps, and some of the behavioural reasons for the mismatch between theory and practice. They conclude by urging further experimental investigation of behavioural evidence of cognitive mapping. Originally published in 1973: Chapter 1 in Roger M. Downs and David Stea (eds) Image and Environment: Cognitive Mapping and Spatial Behavior,

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Drawing from cognitive–developmental and cartographic theory, we tested children's understanding of person–map–space relations. After introducing maps of the classroom, an adult moved to different positions in the room and pointed straight ahead. Five– to 12-year-old children (N = 259) placed colored arrow stickers on the map to show the person's location and heading, once when the map was aligned with the room and once when rotated 180°. Performance was better on the aligned condition and when headings were parallel to the nearby wall; most younger children failed to understand point of view; and sex differences favored boys. Data from 168 children given additional spatial tasks were consistent with the hypothesized importance of projective spatial concepts for mapping. Data suggest that it is geometric (spatial) rather than representational (symbolic) space–map correspondence that pose particular difficulty for older children.

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The current focus on geographic ignorance within the discipline and within the mass media offers another opportunity t o reform the teaching of geography at all grade levels. Previous reforms have met with little success. We argue that current efforts will succeed only if we integrate ideas from geography, child development, and education. Programs of geographic education must link geographic content with an understanding of the nature of the learner and with the expectations and knowledge of the teacher. We illustrate this argument using the Guidelines for Geographic Education: Elementary and Secondary Schools (1984). The concept of a map is central t o the Guidelines: of 30 suggested learning outcomes for kindergarten through second grade, 13 depend upon understanding maps. We explore early map understanding by linking Piagetian developmental theory, cartographic theory, and educational practice. We discuss empirical data on the young child's (1) understanding of maps as graphic representations, (2) ability t o use a classroom map, and (3) ability t o understand the concept of geographic hierarchy. Successful reform of the geographic curriculum is possible if we match an understanding of geographic content with an appreciation of the development of logical and spatial skills in children.