In the past few years, the implementation of blockchain technology for various applications has been widely discussed in the research community and the industry. There are sufficient number of articles that discuss the possibility of applying blockchain technology in various areas, such as, healthcare, IoT, and business. However, in this article, we present a comparative analysis of core blockchain architecture, its fundamental concepts, and its applications in three major areas: the Internet-of-Things (IoT), healthcare, business and vehicular industry. For each area, we discuss in detail, challenges and solutions that have been proposed from the research community and industry. This research studies also presented the complete ecosystem of blockchain of all the papers we reviewed and summarized. Moreover, analysis is performed of various blockchain platforms, their consensus models, and applications. Finally, we discuss key aspects that are required for the widespread future adoption of blockchain technology in these major areas. INDEX TERMS Blockchain, IoT blockchain, healthcare blockchain, permissioned blockchain, business blockchain.

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In this paper, we consider the decentralization of power generation and management problems in electric vehicle supply equipment (D-EVSE). We propose two algorithms to manage the interaction between electric vehicles (EVs) and D-EVSEs while maximizing EV drivers' satisfaction in terms of reducing the waiting time for charging or discharging services and minimizing the stress level for D-EVSEs. The first algorithm is used to schedule charging or discharging service for EVs. The second algorithm is used to manage unscheduled EV needs at D-EVSEs. The simulation results using realistic scenarios are conducted to validate the proposed schemes and demonstrate their efficiency and effectiveness while satisfying the defined constraints. Furthermore, we apply both D-EVSE scheduled and unscheduled schemes to Ontario highways 174, 416, and 417 in the city of Ottawa as a case study.

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In this paper, we address a decentralized power production and management system based on Game Theory (GT) for Electric Vehicles' (EVs') interplay with a Decentralized Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment (D-EVSE) located at the public supply station. Renewable energy production such as solar energy (PV) is considered as the main power source for our D-EVSE and we consider the connection to the grid when the solar renewable energy system is failing to respond to the demand. We propose a decentralized GT (D-GT) scheme aiming to optimize the EVs' interaction with the D-EVSE considering both EVs' satisfaction as well as the D-EVSEs' stability. Also, the D-GT model is used to choose the optimal available solution for EV charging or discharging services that fulfill predefined constraints. A realistic scenario is considered as a testbed for our D-GT optimization model. Simulation results indicate that the proposed model can manage and control the interaction between EVs and D-EVSEs efficiently. INDEX TERMS Electric vehicles, electric vehicles charging, electric vehicles discharging, decentralized-energy storage system, decentralized-electric vehicle supply equipment, decentralized game theory, renewable energy, smart cities.