The purpose of this study was to examine how the implementation of after-school programs in Korea's public schools is related to educational equality and private tutoring expenses. The analyzed data was from the Survey on the Status of Private Tutoring and the Study of the Policy Measures to Reduce Private Tutoring Expenses conducted by KEDI (Korea Education Development Institute) in (International conference for exploring the ways to activate the after-school program, KEDI, Seoul, 2007). The Chisquare test was employed to investigate (a) the relationship between after-school participation and family income and residential location of students (b) the association between after-school engagement and the reduction in private tutoring expenses. The study found that: (a) in general, lowincome and rural students participated more than higher income and urban peers in after-school programs and (b) after-school participation was generally negatively associated with private tutoring engagement and the impact of after-school participation on the reduction in private tutoring expenses was stronger for low-income students in elementary and high schools and rural students in high schools.The overall findings provide further research issue regarding whether after-school programs can help foster educational equality by offering more opportunities for learning and achievement improvement for disadvantaged students. The results also imply the potential of after-school programs in reducing private tutoring expenses, particularly for low-income families.

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This study assessed and evaluated the competitiveness of national human resource development (NHRD) systems in emerging countries with potential for growth. The literature on emerging countries and NHRD systems was reviewed. The study developed a model mechanism with forty-one indices and nine sub-components for the NHRD system assessment in emerging countries. To secure the validity of the components and indices, domestic and foreign experts in human resource development (HRD) and related areas were consulted. Each component and index was weighted using the analytic hierarchical process, and the relevance with related indices was compared and analyzed. The developed indices were found to have high relevance. According to the assessed order and component, an analysis was performed based on NHRD competitiveness rank, the economic standard, and the region. Policy makers and decision-making bodies will find this study informative for policy evaluation related to HRD, particularly in assessing the current status core and how to improve the competitiveness of NHRD systems in emerging countries.

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