Recently, natural sun blockers have been drawing considerable attention because synthetic UV filters could have adverse effects not only on humans but also on the environment. Even though lignin, the second most abundant renewable resource on earth, is a natural UV-absorbing polymer, its unfavorable dark color hampers its applications in sunscreens. In this work, we obtained light-colored lignin (CEL) from rice husks through cellulolytic enzyme treatment and subsequent solvent extraction under mild conditions and compared CEL to technical lignin from rice husks using the International Commission on Illumination L*a*b* (CIELAB) color space. Spherical nanoparticles of CEL (CEL-NP) were also prepared using a solvent shifting method and evaluated for broad-spectrum sunscreens. A moisturizing cream blended with CEL-NP exhibited higher sun protection factor (SPF) and UVA PF (protection factor) values than that with CEL. In addition, CEL-NP had synergistic effects when blended with an organic UV-filter sunscreen: CEL-NP enhanced the SPF and UVA PF values of the sunscreen greatly. However, there was no synergistic effect between CEL-NP and inorganic sunscreens. We expect nanoparticles of light-colored lignin to find high-value-added applications as a natural UV-blocking additive in sunscreens and cosmetics.
Redox enzymes are widely used as powerful biocatalysts owing to their high selectivity and sustainability. Since most of the enzymatic reactions require the expensive coenzyme (the reduced form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, NADH) in a stoichiometric amount, efficient NADH regeneration is essential for various biocatalytic syntheses. Even though an electroenzymatic recycling method has many advantages, it requires low-molecular-weight redox mediators to transfer electrons from electrodes to an enzymes' active site, which are generally toxic and make it difficult to purify products after the reaction. In the present study, we have conjugated a mediator to enzyme catalyst to solve the problem of the electroenzymatic NADH regeneration. Mediators bound to enzymes can be separated from the reaction medium and then reused readily. Moreover, the conjugation can promote a faster electron transfer between mediators and enzymes. For the conjugation, a viologen with a carboxyl group, ethyl carboxyethyl viologen (ECV) was synthesized and covalently linked to diaphorase (DI) using a cross-linker. Cyclic voltammetry showed that the ECV conjugated to DI displayed electrochemical behavior similar to free ECV. In marked contrast to native DI, the DI-ECV conjugate reduced NAD + to NADH without any mediator, and this bioelectrocatalyst regenerated NADH successfully for enzymatic lactate synthesis.Redox enzymes are widely used as selective and sustainable catalysts not only in various organic synthesis processes but also in electrochemical applications such as biosensors and biofuel cells. 1,2 About 90% of them require nicotinamide coenzymes [e.g., nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD + ) and its reduced form, NADH], which form reversible redox pairs to accept or donate electrons in redox reactions. 1,3 In particular, NADH participates in important and challenging reactions including CO 2 fixation, alkane hydroxylations, and chiral alcohol syntheses in stoichiometric quantities; 1,4 however, NADH is too expensive to use on a large scale. Hence, the efficient regeneration of NADH from NAD + is essential for industrial applications of these biocatalysts. 3,[5][6][7][8] There are three popular methods to recycle NADH: enzymatic, electrochemical, and electroenzymatic. Even though enzymatic regeneration of NADH where a second enzyme (e.g., formate dehydrogenase) and an auxiliary substrate (e.g., formate) are used as a catalyst and a sacrificial donor, respectively, is the most practical method owing to its high total turnover number and selectivity, the co-substrate (e.g., formate) makes it difficult to isolate reaction products. 3,6 In this respect, an electrochemical method in which water is the sole electron and proton source for NAD + reduction has been intensively investigated. 7,8 Although electron supply from water electrolysis is attractive, a direct NAD + reduction on bare electrodes yields enzymatically inactive forms such as NAD dimers and 1,6-NADH isomer due to the formation of NAD free radicals followed by radical c...
Improving bacterial membrane permeability in a controlled manner using BPEIs can improve biosensing of toxic compounds, as well as be used in biofuel and bioenergy applications where membrane permeability to a solute is important.
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